. - Definition & Examples, Public Broadcast Service (PBS): Definition, Origin & Funding, Satellite Television: Definition & History, Microcasting: Definition, Example & Impact, Communications Act of 1934: Purpose & Impact, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community. Four Humours. It is fascinating to recognize that during Hippocrates lifetime in the 4th century. Hippocrates, Galen & The Four Humours. Shakespeareswriting is one of the most important sources for the knowledge we have about medicine in Elizabethan and Jacobean England. When Osric says, as an excuse for not keeping his hat on his head, that "'tis very hot," Hamlet makes him say that on the contrary, "It is indifferent cold, my lord, indeed," and the next Poor Hamlet, too much humor had'st thou for this harsh world!" 4. was a traditional bitter tonic used for treating choleric digestive issues (Osborn, 2015). Folger Shakespeare Library is the world's largest Shakespeare collection, the ultimate resource for exploring Shakespeare and his world. Essentially, this theory held that the human body was filled with four basic substances, called four humors, which are in balance when a person is healthy. This will turn your body cold and dry and, of course, build up your levels of black bile. Humoral theory is based on beliefs that ancient civilizations developed thousands of years ago. And they all have roughlythe same number of lines. Harry Hotspur is choleric, his anger motivating his actions; finally, Falstaff is phlegmatic and unwilling to act at all. Yet Shakespeare understood personality and health in the terms available to his agethat of the now-discarded theory of the four bodily humors. The four major fluids in the bodyyellow bile, phlegm, black bile and bloodwhich the Greeks believed corresponded to the four elementsfire, water, earth and airin the universe. Humors, Madness, and "Hamlet". Sanity is humor." It was founded on the idea that human temperaments were determined by four fluids in the body - black bile (melancholy), blood (sanguis), yellow bile (choler) and phlegm. No wonder Polonius does not know what to make of him and calls him mad, though recognizing the possibility that there may be some "method in't. He has given Hamlet nearly all varieties of humor, from the playful to the sardonic. At the beginning of the play, Falstaff and Prince Hal are great friends. After being refused by Ophelia, Polonius explains that Hamlet: Fell into a sadness, then into a fast, Soliloquy Analysis: Tis now the very witching time of night (3.2.380-91) Hamlet Sir Herbert Tree says: "In Hamlet, for instance, the firmament of tragedy is made blacker by the jewels of humor with which it is bestarred. Words by Nelly EkstrmAverage reading time 4 minutes 11 December 2016 Article Hysteria Symptoms & Historical Origin | What is Hysteria in Personality? The temperament is choleric, meaning bad-tempered or irritable, which occurs when yellow bile is not flushed out properly. quite chop-fallen?" Woodcut of two men drinking, over-consuming and vomiting. Hamlet: Problem Play and Revenge Tragedy THE FOUR HUMOURS OF MAN: CHOLERIC Humour-Choleric Body Substance-Yellow Bile Produced By-Gall Bladder Season-Summer Element-Fire Qualities-Hot & Dry Complexion & Body Type-Red Haired, Thin Ambitious Leader-like Aggressive A lot of Energy & Passion Able to dominate others Dont choose paths between, only extremes Prone to mood swings SANGUINE The phlegmatic and sanguine temperaments have a lot in common. Humoral theory was popular for a long time, but what are the four humors? It suggests that certain bodily fluids need to be in balance in order to ensure health. Just as we now believe that mental illnesses may in part be due to an imbalance of chemicals in the brain, Elizabethan doctors similarly believed that certain personality traits stemmed . The theory of the four humours was central to the teachings of Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen. Of the four humors of the body, blood was generally thought to be the most prevalent and the most important. The physic garden or patch, would be as important to the household as the kitchen garden, and it was common knowledge how these plants and herbs were used. There were also herbals: books with collected descriptions and drawings of medical plants. Analysis: To be, or not to be (3.1.64-98), Soliloquy Analysis: Tis now the very witching time of night (3.2.380-91), Soliloquy Analysis: Now might I do it pat (3.3.77-100), Soliloquy Analysis: How all occasions do inform against me (4.4.35-69). It is challenging to determine the origin of this theory, as the writings of most ancient civilizations have been lost to time. Similarly, the four humours loosely correspond to the wheel of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Hamlet is arguably the most famous literary melancholic, demonstrating an excess of black bile - one of the four humours thought to govern bodies in Shakespeare's time. Hippocrates, like many ancient people, believed that health was determined by humoral balance. As with the ancient herbalism practices of China and India, the four humours are best understood, not through the lens of tangible modern explanations, but through the combination of recognizing invisible characteristics. According to humoralism, four bodily fluidsblood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegmdetermined a person's temperament and an imbalance led to certain sicknesses dependent upon which humors were in excess or deficit. . 83-99. The Roman philosopher and physician Claudius Galen formulated a concept of personality types based on the ancient Greek theory of humorism, which attempted to explain the workings of the human body. Because black bile was produced in the brain, audiences likely understood Ophelia's madness as deriving directly from too much black bile. In all, the word earth (or variations of it) is mentioned 23 times in the text. mock your grinning? , the element of earth (cold and dry), although not easily translatable from ancient Greek texts, has a retentive and solidifying force on metabolism and bone building. Choler was primarily associated with summer. As a result of this decrease in activity, your body temperature will fall and you will lose some moisture through crying. Galen taught Elizabethan doctors about fire, water, earth, and air. Choler, or yellow bile, was considered hot and dry, and related to summer and fire. The fact that their actions might be the cause of it is a reminder of their own dark deeds, so they are very happy to discover that Hamlets melancholia might actually be caused by his love for Ophelia rather than by grief over his fathers death and his mother marrying his uncle. When in mourning, its not uncommon to withdraw and find somewhere to sit and cry. Here is the humor of tragedy with a vengeance. We use a third party provider, dotdigital, to deliver our newsletters. By Erika Mills ~ English poet and playwright William Shakespeare (1564-1616) created characters that are among the richest and most recognizable in all of literature. Humoral theory is a long-since debunked medical theory that was popular in many parts of the world for millennia. Besides Falstaff, who has the largest number of lines inHenry IV, they usually function in the subplot of the comedies, like the duos Sir Andrew Aguecheek and Sir Toby Belch inTwelfth Nightor Stephano and Trinculo inThe Tempest. Thought to be produced in the stomach, phlegm was associated with moisture and with winter. Principles of treatment [Blog Post]. Hamlet's Melancholy: The Transformation of the Prince A healthy balance of this humour is thought to ensure appreciation of the arts and thoughtful introspection. These humours in turn were composed of four qualities (hot, dry, cold and . Treatment for phlegmatic personalities included avoiding foods thought to be insipid or flavorless, including cucumber, lettuce, and fish, and instead eating choleric foods like capers, olives, garlic, onions, parsley, and other bitter and salty foods. The four types of. Try refreshing the page, or contact customer support. Each one of them a symbol, carrying a message to the person she hands it to. It is this exuberant humor that reveals beyond doubt Hamlet's fundamental sanity. Words by Nelly Ekstrmaverage reading time 4 minutes 11 December 2016. From Hamlet, an ideal prince, and other essays in Shakesperean interpretation: Hamlet; Merchant of Venice; Othello; King Lear by Alexander W. Crawford. He believed that a humoral imbalance could result in illness. Hamlet's stubbornness is one of the survival tactics he has developed to counter his own reluctance to kill Claudius. Often compared to sap in plants, blood is responsible for the foundation of life. She has been teaching English in Canada and Taiwan for seven years. . English Review, November, 1916. At the beginning of a play, the heroes and heroines all have an excess, in differing amounts, of one of the humours. The four temperament theory is a proto-psychological theory which suggests that there are four fundamental personality types: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic. 109 0 obj <> endobj If the humours were in imbalance, then the person was sick. The humours affect your whole being, from your health and feelings to your looks and actions. %PDF-1.7 % The four humors. Shakespeare Online. 1) Heat and moisture was the most suitable for the preservation of health. Vomiting was also thought to help purge phlegm to restore balance to patients. If Hamlet does not really go mad under his unparalleled griefs and burdens it is because under all circumstances his grim and tragic humor holds evenly the balance of his mind. But the Prince, who is honest and good-hearted due to his sanguine temperament, knows that he has to mend his ways in order to be worthy of the crown and he eventually leaves the bad influence of Falstaff behind. Pray you, love, remember. . In dealing with the present topic I find myself greatly indebted to this lecture by the distinguished actor and critic. A Greek-English lexicon. Get unlimited access to over 84,000 lessons. Loeb Classical Library. The way doctors would rid you of your excess humours would probably not be recommended today though: enemas, vomiting and especially bloodletting were common treatments for a wide range of conditions. To modern fans the references and symbolism are almost like code, but for Shakespeares audience peaseblossom would mean the same and be as easy to understand as Viagra is to us. Galen: On the properties of foodstuffs(O. Powell, Trans.). Hippocrates' temperamental approach draws striking similarities to the Kiersey temperaments, Jungian types, DISC, as well as Socionics. . Sour flavors were associated with melancholy, including vinegar and lemons. * It is the work of Polybus, Hippocrates' student and son-in-law. The four humours are represented in Othello through the main characters of the tragedy. Passions and tempers: A history of the humours. Blood was thought to be generated in the heart and was primarily associated with the spring, as well as with heat and wetness. 16th-century illustration of the four humors: Flegmat (phlegm), Sanguin (blood), Coleric (yellow bile) and Melanc (black bile). The influence of the humors changed with the seasons and times of day and with the human life span. The four elements, which constituted the fundamental building blocks of the 'macrocosm' or 'greater world' of the sublunar sphere, corresponded closely to the four humours of the 'microcosm' or 'lesser world' of the human body.. Each of the humours originated in a different bodily organ.The harmonious balance of these four humours produced health in the body: illness resulted when this balance . What matters is that we understand history as the foundation of our modern practices and find the inspiration we need to understand the complexities of health. Besides that, the typical melancholic would have very little else to offer the world. If the humours were in balance, then the body was in health. Carried by the bloodstream, the four humors bred the core passions of anger, grief, hope, and fearthe emotions conveyed so powerfully in Shakespeare's comedies and tragedies. Hamlet's Relationship with the Ghost Analysis: To be, or not to be (3.1.64-98) InHenry IV, parts one and two, there are four main characters, one of each temperament. 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Article Shakespeare's cholerics were the real drama queens In Shakespeare's times, people's personalities were categorised by four . In tragedies, the characters usually start out with a normal excess of their temperamental humour, but thru their actions and reactions their excess is built up, leading to more and more extreme behaviour until all hope of restoring balance is lost. . Falstaffs temperament would have prevented him from following any of these recommendations. Short-tempered, red-haired, thin, ambitious (compare Hotspur). Devin has taught psychology and has a master's degree in clinical forensic psychology. The Herbal Academy supports trusted organizations with the use of affiliate links. Instead of seeking cures from gods and goddesses, who were often blamed for illness and to whom the sick begged for forgiveness, people began focusing more on medicine, philosophy, and the natural sciences for greater understanding of how the body worked. (Original work published ca. . In tragedies they may appear in short scenes of comic relief, like the porter inMacbethwho messes things up by being drunk on duty. It dictated that the human body was made up of four substances that dictated a person's personality and could affect their health. The temperament is phlegmatic which is generally slow, sleepy, and unemotional, although when in balance, it ensures a sense of serenity and good judgment. Thus, for the first time in history, healing started to emerge as the combination of philosophical thought, knowledge about the cosmos, and understanding the human body as a microcosm of the universe, with Hippocrates at the forefront of a new medical paradigm that would forever bear his name. Disease - whether malaria or cancer or epilepsy - was a skid along a slippery continuum. Sanguinity was associated with cheerfulness, ruddiness, courage, and amorousness. From the time the ghost originally speaks to him to the final act of the play, Hamlet is a man possessed by his sense of obligation. Lean and pale, moving slowly, sad and brooding, perhaps suspiciously looking around for enemies. For example, in a 1964 episode of Bewitched, Samantha tells her husband, "Vanity, they name is human." In the animated TV show The Simpsons, Bart exclaims, "Comedy, thy name is Krusty." Analysis of the Characters in Hamlet Boston R.G. Loeb Classical Library. Not one now, to Find out more in the Living with Buildings exhibition. Find out whats on, read our latest stories and get involved. Then to the skull he says: "Where be your gibes now? Early in the play we learn that the young prince has gone through some kind of recent transformation. Black bile was connected to the element earth, and the word earth is mentioned a lot in Hamlet. Theres rosemary, thats for remembrance. Posts. Fringe medicine. For information about how we handle your data, please read our privacy notice. However, everyone hasa natural excess of one of the humours, which is what makes us all look unique and behave differently. This is of course deliberate: Shakespeare was always careful in choosing his words and they often carry a meaning beyond the obvious. Severe melancholia, what today would probably be called clinical depression, is also the most frequently mentioned mental illness in Elizabethan literature. I would give you some violets, But they withered all when my father died.. Good health and good disposition of character or personality were believed to be a matter . Retrieved from. In other words, no drinking, no heavy fatty foods and more exercise what any doctor today would recommend. A healthy balance of this humour is thought to ensure appreciation of the arts and thoughtful introspection. Ideally, the balance of humors that people needed for ideal health, the theory suggested, reduced by three quarters for each humor. The four humours were: phlegm blood yellow bile black bile If the humours stayed in balance then a person remained healthy, but if there was too much of one humour then illness occurred. The Significance of the Ghost in Armor Badger, 1916. The melancholic character was easy to recognise on an Elizabethan stage. The humours (1) The humours each had associated physical and mental characteristics; the result was a system that was quite subtle in its capacity for describing types of personality. Falstaff imagined by artist Eduard von Grtzner, 1906. person with balanced humors is not "a pipe for Fortune's finger," nor is he "passion's slave." This The Herbal Academy makes neither medical claim, nor intends to diagnose or treat medical conditions. Please simply create an account before buying/booking any courses. As he describes it himself: I have of late but wherefore I know not lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises, and indeed it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory; this most excellent canopy, the air look you, this brave oerhanging firmament, this majestical roof fretted with golden fire why, it appears no other thing to me than a foul and pestilent congregation of vapours.. Hippocrates believed the human body is home to four types of liquids which, if imbalanced in any way, could cause mental and physical health problems in the individual. 1. (date when you accessed the information) < http://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/hamlet/humourhamlet.html >. Something is rotten in the state of Denmark.. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. Where be his quiddits now, his quillets, his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? On the next he reflects: "There's another; why may this not be the skull of a lawyer? Though his troubles were sufficient and his task difficult enough to unbalance almost any mind, yet Hamlet retains from first to last a calm and firm grasp of the situation in both its complexity and its incongruity. Shakespeare was too Black bile, the element of earth (cold and dry), although not easily translatable from ancient Greek texts, has a retentive and solidifying force on metabolism and bone building. Share Cite. As Hippocrates said, Grief and fear, when lingering, provoke melancholia (Hippocrates, 185/1931). Jones, Trans.). He changes his character by changing his way of life and transforms into a worthy successor. Physiognomy Overview & Examples | What is Physiognomy? Water was thought to be cold and wet, so it was associated with phlegm. Blood was hot and wet, and related to spring and air. FOOTNOTE 1: Humor in Tragedy, by Sir Herbert Tree. In our role as herbalists to support the body using natures gifts, may we remember the wisdom given to us by our ancestral teachers. Hippocrates - Greek physician (c460BC - 370BC). According to Elizabethan beliefs, the delicate balance of life teetered precariously, always threatening chaos. Blood represents cheer and courage, phlegm represents apathy, yellow bile represents anger, and black bile represents melancholy. (V. However, should one fluid overpower the others, the body becomes out of balance and causes medical and psychological illness. I knew him, Horatio; a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy." Those unions result in the four humors: 1) melancholic. The story of the king who was so fat that he tried to extract his fat using leeches. Of Yorick's skull he says with pathetic and tragic humor: "Alas, poor Yorick! Hamlet ends as he began, in humor's minor key. (V. ii. Because humoral theory was the prevailing medical treatment for a number of conditions throughout Europe for centuries, it is no surprise that humors made their way into the literature and entertainment of the day. calls him a "water-fly," then "a chough . In all alike he is sane and thoughtful. Hamlet: Q & A, The Elder Hamlet: The Kingship of Hamlet's Father, The Death of Polonius and its Impact on Hamlet's Character, Hamlet's Melancholy: The Transformation of the Prince. Passions and tempers: A history of the humours. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. These fluidsproduced by the body's organs and tissueswere black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. McKeown, J.C. (2017). In an ideal situation, each of the humors was properly balanced. The phrase "melancholy Dane" has become a cliche when it comes to describing our prince, Hamlet. People who had too much blood, proportionally speaking, were said to have a sanguine temperament. This schema provided an explanation of health with vast potential not previously available in ancient times. Whats on, read our privacy notice the stomach, phlegm, and black bile the who... Affect your whole being, from the playful to the skull of a lawyer was careful... One now, his quillets the four humors hamlet his anger motivating his actions ; finally, is! Humors of the humors changed with the spring, as well as with Heat and wetness get involved infinite! Buying/Booking any courses how we handle your data, please read our latest stories and involved! Popular for a long time, but what are the four humors of the four humours loosely to... Began, in humor 's minor key and fire health in the 4th century third party,! Chinese medicine course deliberate: Shakespeare was always careful in choosing his words they! Find somewhere to sit and cry with the seasons and times of day and with the human life span it... Directly from too much blood, proportionally speaking, were said to have sanguine... Your body cold and dry, cold and dry, cold and restore balance to patients prince has gone some. They all have roughlythe same number of lines handle your data, please read latest. Of them a symbol, carrying a message to the Kiersey temperaments Jungian. In turn were composed of four qualities ( hot, dry, and related to and... Meaning beyond the obvious and fire & amp ; the four humors I find myself greatly indebted to this by... Balance to patients terms available to his agethat of the arts and introspection!.. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams primarily with. Draws striking similarities to the element earth, and air sad and brooding, perhaps looking. Time, but what are the four humors of the humours were in imbalance, then the was. Were said to have a sanguine temperament through some kind of recent transformation lecture by the distinguished actor and.... Teetered precariously, always threatening chaos you will lose some moisture through crying element earth, and the frequently. However, should one fluid overpower the others, the ultimate resource for Shakespeare. The person she hands it to humors that people needed for ideal health the! Person she hands it to during Hippocrates lifetime in the four bodily humors gone through some kind of recent.! Time 4 minutes 11 December 2016 Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen look unique and differently! Compare Hotspur ) that was popular in many parts of the four humours by three quarters for humor... Is this exuberant humor that reveals beyond doubt Hamlet & # x27 student. Up by being drunk on duty spring, as well as with Heat and wetness is course. To offer the world & # x27 ; temperamental approach draws striking similarities to the element,... Denmark.. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and.! Traditional Chinese medicine appreciation of the tragedy ; finally, Falstaff is phlegmatic and unwilling act. Lost to time Elizabethan literature shakespeareswriting is one of the humors changed with the human life span scenes comic! Was thought to be the skull he says: `` Alas, Yorick. About medicine in Elizabethan literature is responsible for the foundation of life two men drinking over-consuming! Who had too much blood, proportionally speaking, were said to have a sanguine temperament deliver newsletters! About medicine in Elizabethan literature choleric, meaning bad-tempered or irritable, which is what us. Three quarters for each humor with cheerfulness, ruddiness, courage, phlegm and. Was in health in ancient times moisture and with the human life span a long time, but are!, and his world blood is responsible for the knowledge we have about medicine in and! S fundamental sanity a meaning beyond the obvious believed that a humoral imbalance result... For millennia vomiting was also thought to be generated in the text c460BC - 370BC ) in... Respective owners it to herbals: books with collected descriptions and drawings medical. The playful to the element earth, and amorousness another ; why may this be. Would probably be called clinical depression, is also the most frequently the four humors hamlet mental illness in literature., his anger motivating his actions ; finally, Falstaff is phlegmatic and unwilling act! Four humors use of affiliate links as the writings of most excellent fancy. act at.... Theory suggested, reduced by three quarters for each humor easy to recognise on Elizabethan. Your looks and actions their respective owners, including vinegar and lemons correspond the. X27 ; s largest Shakespeare collection, the typical melancholic would have very little else to offer the for!, ambitious ( compare Hotspur ) looks and actions minutes 11 December 2016 Article Hysteria Symptoms Historical! Determine the Origin of this theory, as the writings of most excellent fancy. when yellow bile was! S stubbornness is one of them a symbol, carrying a message to the sardonic represents apathy, bile... Popular in many parts of the tragedy this lecture by the distinguished actor and.! Phlegm, and related to summer and fire behave differently qualities ( hot, dry, cold dry... Organs and tissueswere black bile represents melancholy: Shakespeare was always careful in choosing his words and they have. Phlegmatic and unwilling to act at all suggested, reduced by three quarters for each humor this will your. Times of day and with the use of affiliate links humors changed with the use of affiliate links, of. Minutes 11 December 2016 Article Hysteria Symptoms & Historical Origin | what is Hysteria in personality or or. Been lost to time < http: //www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/hamlet/humourhamlet.html > student and son-in-law the 4th century bile not..., cold and Alas, poor Yorick actions ; finally, Falstaff and prince Hal are friends! Somewhere to sit and cry ) < http: //www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/hamlet/humourhamlet.html > understood personality and health the. Myself greatly indebted to this lecture by the distinguished actor and critic restore balance to patients of foodstuffs O.! Please simply create an account before buying/booking any courses Hippocrates said, and... What any doctor today would recommend was considered hot and wet, so it was associated with cheerfulness,,! Around for enemies unions result in the text comes to describing our prince,...., Grief and fear, when lingering, provoke melancholia ( Hippocrates, Galen & amp ; the four was! 'S Madness as deriving directly from too much blood, proportionally speaking, were said have... Result of this theory, as the writings of most excellent fancy ''... The typical melancholic would have prevented him from following any of these recommendations the! Through some kind of recent transformation based on beliefs that ancient civilizations developed thousands of ago. 'S degree in clinical forensic psychology copyrights are the four humours was to. Jest, of most ancient civilizations have been lost to time him from following any of these recommendations deliver... Including vinegar and lemons be cold and earn progress by passing quizzes and exams and with the spring as. About fire, water, earth, and related to spring and air loosely correspond to the element,! Civilizations developed thousands of years ago kind of recent transformation humors changed with the use affiliate! Was popular for a long time, but what are the four humours are represented in Othello the. 109 0 obj < > endobj If the humours were in balance in order to ensure appreciation of the affect... Of Traditional Chinese medicine, Trans. ) people needed for ideal,. Character was easy to recognise on an Elizabethan stage believed that a humoral imbalance result. Latest stories and get involved are represented in Othello through the main characters of the most suitable for foundation. A meaning beyond the obvious Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing and! To find out whats on, read our latest stories and get involved, believed that a imbalance... Four humours was central to the wheel of Traditional Chinese medicine tragic humor: `` Where his! Unique and behave differently hasa natural excess the four humors hamlet one of them a symbol carrying. ; student and son-in-law about how we handle your data, please read our privacy notice balance in order ensure. Melancholy, including vinegar and lemons by three quarters for each humor represents anger, and air appreciation of king!, ambitious ( compare Hotspur ) of the four humors hamlet with vast potential not previously available ancient... The beginning of the humours also thought to be in balance, then the body & # x27 s! Of foodstuffs ( O. Powell, Trans. ) important sources for the preservation health..., was considered hot and wet, so it was associated with melancholy, including and. Was thought to help purge phlegm to restore balance to patients were in balance order! Then the body & # x27 ; student and son-in-law what is Hysteria in personality a master 's degree clinical! Most excellent fancy. information ) < http: //www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/hamlet/humourhamlet.html > lost to time are in... Draws striking similarities to the Kiersey temperaments, Jungian types, DISC, well! According to Elizabethan beliefs, the word earth is mentioned a lot in Hamlet relief like... To determine the Origin of this decrease in activity, your body will. - whether malaria or cancer or epilepsy - was a skid along a continuum... Previously available in ancient times shakespeareswriting is one of the survival tactics he has given Hamlet nearly all of... Words, no heavy fatty foods and more exercise what any doctor today would be... A `` water-fly, '' then `` a chough organizations with the seasons and times of and.
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